Supreme Court Upholds Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of Electoral Rolls Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) Hasdeo Arand Coal Mining Clearance Mount Everest Overcrowding and Climate Challenges Why Gold Does Not Rust?

1.Supreme Court Upholds Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of Electoral Rolls

The Supreme Court upheld the Election Commission’s (EC) Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls, holding that preparation and maintenance of accurate voter lists is a constitutional responsibility flowing from Article 324. The judgment emphasized that free and fair elections depend upon the purity and integrity of electoral rolls.

The Court rejected allegations that the SIR exercise was an indirect citizenship screening mechanism and affirmed that the Election Commission possesses the authority to verify eligibility and citizenship status for inclusion in electoral rolls.

Key Features of the Judgment

• The Court held that the Election Commission has a continuous constitutional obligation to ensure that electoral rolls remain accurate, updated, and free from duplicate or invalid entries. It observed that electoral integrity forms the foundation of democratic legitimacy.
• The Supreme Court also directed that names removed during the Bihar SIR on citizenship-related grounds must be referred by the EC to the Union Government for adjudication within four weeks.
• Importantly, the Court clarified that persons wrongly deleted from electoral rolls due to migration, duplication, absence, or procedural errors retain the right to seek judicial remedy before competent courts.

Bihar SIR Exercise: Important Facts

Particular	Details
Start of SIR	24 June 2025
Publication of Final Roll	30 September 2025
Electors Before Revision	7.89 crore
Electors After Revision	7.42 crore
Approximate Reduction	Nearly 47 lakh entries removed
Reasons for Deletion	Death, migration, duplication, and defective entries

The Election Commission also initiated the second phase of the SIR exercise covering nearly 51 crore voters across 12 States and Union Territories while the Bihar challenge was still pending before the Court.

Reasons Accepted by the Supreme Court for Conducting SIR

The Court accepted the Election Commission’s justification that more than two decades had passed since the last intensive revision of electoral rolls. During this period, large-scale urbanization, internal migration, demographic shifts, and repeated voter registrations increased the possibility of defective and duplicate entries.

The Court observed that periodic verification of electoral rolls is necessary to prevent impersonation, bogus voting, and electoral malpractice.

Article 324: Constitutional Basis of EC’s Powers

Article 324 vests the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the powers of “superintendence, direction and control” over elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President.

The Article establishes the Election Commission as an independent constitutional authority insulated from executive interference.

Important Features of Article 324

Feature	Details
Constitutional Status	Establishes the Election Commission as an independent constitutional body
Scope	Covers elections and electoral roll preparation
Appointment	CEC and Election Commissioners appointed by the President
Removal Protection	CEC removable only through a process similar to that of a Supreme Court judge
Plenary Powers	EC can act in areas where laws are silent, provided actions do not violate existing law

The Supreme Court has repeatedly interpreted Article 324 as a source of broad residuary powers necessary for maintaining electoral fairness.

Important Judicial Principles Related to Article 324

• In the Mohinder Singh Gill v. Chief Election Commissioner case, the Supreme Court held that Article 324 grants wide powers to the Election Commission to ensure free and fair elections.
• In the A.C. Jose v. Sivan Pillai case, the Court clarified that the EC may exercise powers in areas where statutory law is absent, but it cannot override existing legislation.
• The T.N. Seshan v. Union of India judgment reinforced the institutional independence and constitutional importance of the Election Commission.

Significance of the Judgment

The ruling significantly strengthens the constitutional authority of the Election Commission in matters related to electoral roll management.

It reaffirms that:

• Accurate electoral rolls are central to democratic legitimacy.
• Article 324 provides broad constitutional authority to the EC.
• Intensive revision exercises are constitutionally permissible.
• Judicial safeguards remain available against wrongful exclusion.

The judgment also expands the jurisprudence surrounding Article 324 by recognizing electoral roll purification as an essential component of free and fair elections.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s judgment upholding the Special Intensive Revision reinforces the constitutional role of the Election Commission under Article 324 in safeguarding electoral integrity. By affirming the EC’s authority to conduct comprehensive voter verification exercises, the Court strengthened the principle that free and fair elections depend upon accurate and credible electoral rolls. At the same time, the judgment preserved judicial remedies against wrongful exclusion, balancing electoral integrity with individual voting rights.

2.Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

Source: The HinduSubject: Economy / Environment / International Trade

Why in News?

The European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) entered its definitive and financially binding phase from January 1, 2026. The mechanism is expected to significantly affect India’s exports of carbon-intensive products such as steel and aluminium to the European market. Concerns have also emerged regarding rising fertilizer costs and the broader impact of carbon-linked trade measures on India’s economy and agricultural sector.

What is CBAM?

• The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) is the European Union’s climate-linked trade mechanism designed to impose a carbon price on imported goods entering the EU. The objective is to ensure that imported products face carbon costs similar to those paid by European industries under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
• CBAM seeks to prevent “carbon leakage,” where industries shift production to countries with weaker climate regulations to avoid carbon pricing. By linking market access with carbon emissions, the EU aims to protect domestic industries while encouraging global decarbonization.

At present, CBAM covers sectors such as:

• Iron and Steel
• Aluminium
• Cement
• Fertilizers
• Electricity
• Hydrogen

Under the mechanism, importers into the EU must calculate the embedded greenhouse gas emissions associated with imported products and purchase CBAM certificates equivalent to those emissions.

Aspect	Details
Definitive Phase Started	January 1, 2026
Linked Mechanism	EU Emissions Trading System (ETS)
First Certificate Price	€75.36 per tonne of CO₂ equivalent (Q1 2026)
First Financial Settlement	September 30, 2027

Implications for India

• India’s steel and aluminium sectors are expected to face the greatest immediate impact because production remains heavily dependent on coal-based energy systems.
• Higher carbon compliance costs may reduce the competitiveness of Indian exports in European markets and force industries to either absorb additional costs or invest in cleaner technologies such as green hydrogen and renewable energy.
• CBAM may also indirectly affect India’s agricultural sector. Since fertilizers fall within the scope of the mechanism, global fertilizer prices may rise due to additional carbon costs.
• This could increase India’s fertilizer import bill, raise subsidy burdens, increase agricultural input costs, and contribute to food inflation.
• Indian industries, particularly MSMEs, also face major compliance challenges related to emissions measurement, carbon accounting, third-party verification, and supply-chain transparency. Establishing such systems requires substantial financial and technological capacity.
• India and several developing countries have also raised concerns regarding CBAM’s compatibility with World Trade Organization (WTO) principles. Critics argue that the mechanism may function as a form of “green protectionism” and impose unequal burdens on developing economies with lower historical emissions responsibility.

Significance

• CBAM represents a structural transformation in global trade governance because climate compliance is increasingly becoming a condition for market access.
• Carbon emissions are now effectively being converted into a trade cost, and several developed economies are considering similar carbon-border mechanisms.
• For India, the mechanism creates both challenges and opportunities. While carbon-intensive sectors may face short-term pressure, CBAM also encourages industrial modernization, clean-energy transition, and development of low-carbon manufacturing systems.

India’s long-term response will require accelerated investment in renewable energy, green steel, green hydrogen, energy-efficient manufacturing, and credible carbon accounting frameworks.

Simultaneously, India is likely to continue engaging diplomatically with the EU to seek fair treatment for developing countries within emerging climate-trade arrangements.

3.Hasdeo Arand Coal Mining Clearance

Source: The HinduSubject: Environment / Ecology / Governance

Why in News?

The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) granted in-principle approval for diversion of 1,742.6 hectares of forest land in the Hasdeo Arand region of Chhattisgarh for the Kente Extension Coal Block (KECB). The project has triggered strong opposition from tribal communities and environmental groups due to the ecological significance of the Hasdeo forest and the large-scale tree felling involved.

The coal block will be mined by the Adani Group to supply coal to thermal power plants operated by Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Limited (RVUNL).

Hasdeo Arand Forest

Hasdeo Arand is one of central India’s largest contiguous forest landscapes and is classified as a “high conservation value” forest area. It is located in northern Chhattisgarh and forms an important ecological corridor connecting forest ecosystems in central India.

The region is characterized by:

• Dense sal and mixed forests
• Rich biodiversity and wildlife habitats
• Large tribal population dependent on forest resources
• Important watershed functions for the Hasdeo River basin

The forest is also an ecologically sensitive elephant habitat and plays a major role in maintaining regional hydrological balance and carbon sequestration.

Earlier, mining activities had already begun in the Parsa Coal Block (PCB) and Parsa East Kente Basan (PEKB) mines, leading to growing environmental concerns regarding fragmentation of forest landscapes.

Kente Extension Coal Block (KECB)

The newly approved Kente Extension Coal Block is intended to meet coal requirements of RVUNL’s thermal power plants in Rajasthan, which reportedly require around 24.05 million tonnes of coal annually. Existing coal blocks are insufficient to bridge the supply gap.

The project involves:

• Diversion of 1,742.6 hectares of forest land
• Felling of nearly 4.48 lakh trees
• Open-cast coal mining operations
• Phased mining and phased tree cutting

The FAC approved the proposal with conditions. Mining in the first phase has been restricted to 1001.95 hectares for an initial period of ten years. The second phase will depend upon compliance with reforestation and ecological restoration measures.

Aspect	Details
Project	Kente Extension Coal Block
State	Chhattisgarh
Forest Land Diversion	1,742.6 hectares
Trees to be Felled	Approximately 4.48 lakh
Mining Agency	Adani Group
Beneficiary	RVUNL Thermal Power Plants

Forest Advisory Committee (FAC)

The Forest Advisory Committee is a statutory body constituted under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. It functions under the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).

The committee examines proposals involving diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes such as:

• Mining
• Hydroelectric projects
• Roads and infrastructure
• Industrial development

The FAC assesses:

• Ecological impact of projects
• Availability of alternative sites
• Impact on biodiversity and wildlife
• Compliance with the Forest Rights Act, 2006
• Compensatory afforestation plans

Its recommendations are advisory in nature, while the final forest clearance is granted by the MoEF&CC.

Environmental and Tribal Concerns

The approval has generated strong opposition because Hasdeo Arand is considered one of India’s most ecologically valuable forest regions. Environmental groups argue that large-scale mining could cause:

• Fragmentation of forest ecosystems
• Loss of biodiversity
• Destruction of elephant corridors
• Soil erosion and hydrological disruption
• Long-term climate impacts through loss of carbon sinks

The project has also raised concerns regarding tribal rights and livelihood security. Local tribal communities depend heavily on forests for:

• Minor forest produce
• Agriculture and grazing
• Cultural and traditional practices

Critics argue that continued mining expansion threatens both ecological sustainability and the rights of forest-dwelling communities protected under the Forest Rights Act, 2006.

To offset forest loss, compensatory afforestation has been proposed over 3,233.3 hectares of degraded forest land, including portions of orange forest areas. However, environmental experts maintain that compensatory plantations cannot fully replace old-growth natural forests such as Hasdeo Arand.

Significance

• The Hasdeo Arand controversy highlights the growing conflict between energy security and environmental conservation in India. While coal mining is viewed as essential for meeting rising power demand, mining in ecologically sensitive forests raises concerns regarding biodiversity loss, destruction of wildlife habitats, and weakening of carbon sinks.
• The issue also reflects broader debates over diversion of forest land for mining, India’s continued dependence on coal despite climate commitments, and protection of tribal rights under the Forest Rights Act, 2006.
• The approval demonstrates the continuing challenge of balancing economic development, energy needs, ecological sustainability, and environmental justice.

4.Mount Everest Overcrowding and Climate Challenges

Source: The HinduSubject: Environment / Climate Change / Geography

Why in News?

Hundreds of climbers, mountaineers, Sherpas, and officials gathered in Kathmandu during the “Everest Summiteers Summit” to discuss the growing challenges associated with scaling Mount Everest. The discussions focused on overcrowding, rising temperatures, glacier melt, and waste management during what is believed to be the most crowded Everest climbing season.

Nepal issued a record 494 permits to foreign climbers this season, potentially resulting in more than 900 successful summit attempts when Sherpas and support staff are included.

Challenges Facing Mount Everest

• Overcrowding on Everest has become a major safety concern. Large numbers of climbers attempting to summit during short weather windows create traffic congestion on fixed ropes near the summit zone.
• These delays increase exhaustion, oxygen depletion, frostbite risks, and chances of fatal accidents in the “death zone” above 8,000 metres.
• Climate change is further intensifying risks on the mountain. Rising temperatures are accelerating glacier melt, destabilizing ice formations, and increasing the frequency of avalanches and rockfalls. Melting snow and ice are also exposing buried waste and dead bodies that had remained trapped under glaciers for decades.
• Waste management has emerged as another major challenge. During the climbing season, nearly 3,000 people, including climbers, guides, and support staff, stay on Everest. Despite regulations requiring climbers to bring back waste, large quantities of garbage, oxygen cylinders, tents, and human waste continue to accumulate on the mountain.
• A veteran Sherpa guide with a record 32 Everest ascents suggested limiting permits to 250 climbers annually in order to reduce overcrowding and improve safety.

Mount Everest

Mount Everest is the world’s highest mountain peak with a height of 8,848.86 metres above sea level. It is located in the Himalayas along the border between Nepal and China (Tibet Autonomous Region).

Feature	Details
Highest Peak in the World	8,848.86 metres
Mountain Range	Himalayas
Border Location	Nepal–China (Tibet) border
Local Name in Nepal	Sagarmatha
Local Name in Tibet	Chomolungma

Climate Change and Himalayan Glaciers

The Everest crisis reflects broader climate change impacts on the Himalayan region. Rising global temperatures are causing rapid glacier retreat across the Himalayas, which are often referred to as the “Third Pole” because they contain the largest ice reserves outside the polar regions.

Climate change in the Himalayas is leading to:

• Accelerated glacier melting
• Increased glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) risks
• Reduced freshwater security for downstream populations
• More frequent avalanches and landslides
• Ecosystem instability in mountain regions

Scientific studies indicate that Himalayan glaciers are melting at rates much faster than historical averages due to global warming.

Significance

The Everest overcrowding crisis highlights the growing intersection between climate change, tourism, and environmental sustainability. It demonstrates how fragile mountain ecosystems are increasingly threatened by rising temperatures and unregulated human activity.

The issue also raises concerns regarding sustainable tourism, waste management in ecologically sensitive regions, safety standards in adventure tourism, and the long-term impact of climate change on Himalayan ecosystems and water security in South Asia.

5.Why Gold Does Not Rust?

Source: The HinduSubject: Science and Technology / Chemistry

Why in News?

Researchers at Tulane University have identified the atomic-level reason behind gold’s extraordinary resistance to rust and tarnish. The study explains how the arrangement of atoms on gold’s surface suppresses oxidation by preventing oxygen molecules from easily splitting and reacting with the metal. The findings may help scientists design improved industrial catalysts using gold.

Why Gold Does Not Rust?

• Unlike metals such as iron, gold is chemically inert and highly resistant to oxidation. Rusting or tarnishing generally occurs when oxygen reacts with a metal surface, forming oxides. In the case of gold, this reaction occurs extremely slowly because oxygen molecules cannot easily dissociate on its surface.
• The study focused on two gold crystal surfaces — Au(100) and Au(110). Researchers found that gold atoms on these surfaces undergo “surface reconstruction,” where atoms rearrange themselves into more stable hexagonal patterns instead of remaining in simple square or rectangular arrangements.
• This reconstructed atomic arrangement significantly increases the energy required for oxygen molecules to split into reactive oxygen atoms. As a result, oxidation is suppressed by nearly nine to twelve orders of magnitude, making gold exceptionally resistant to corrosion and tarnish.

Surface Type	Oxygen Dissociation Energy
Unreconstructed Surface	0.65–0.74 eV
Reconstructed Surface	More than 1 eV

The higher energy barrier on reconstructed surfaces prevents oxygen from reacting effectively with gold.

Importance of the Study

Gold is traditionally known as a symbol of permanence because it remains chemically stable over long periods. However, gold also has important industrial applications as a catalyst in oxidation reactions.

The findings are significant because they show that catalytic activity depends not only on the chemical composition of a material but also on the arrangement of atoms on its surface. Scientists suggest that stabilizing square or rectangular surface geometries could make gold more chemically reactive and improve its efficiency as a catalyst.

This may contribute to the development of better catalysts for:

• Industrial chemical reactions
• Pollution control technologies
• Energy conversion systems
• Green chemistry applications

Catalysis

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction using a substance called a catalyst, which itself remains chemically unchanged after the reaction.

A catalyst works by lowering the activation energy required for a reaction to occur. This allows reactions to proceed faster and under milder conditions.

Gold is generally considered chemically inert, but at nanoscale levels and under specific surface arrangements, it can function as an effective heterogeneous catalyst in oxidation reactions.

Type of Catalysis	Example
Homogeneous Catalysis	Acid-catalyzed reactions
Heterogeneous Catalysis	Catalytic converters, Haber process
Biocatalysis	Enzyme-based reactions

Significance

The study highlights how atomic-scale surface geometry influences the chemical behaviour of materials. It improves scientific understanding of why gold remains resistant to rust while also opening possibilities for designing more efficient catalysts.

The findings are important for materials science, nanotechnology, industrial chemistry, and clean-energy research, where surface engineering can help create catalysts with greater efficiency and lower energy requirements.