1. Infertility in India

Context:

• Infertility is the inability of a couple to conceive after one year of regular unprotected intercourse.
• It is no longer viewed solely as a woman’s problem because male factors contribute almost equally.
• Psychological stress is increasingly recognised as a physiological driver that can affect ovulation, sperm quality, and implantation.

Key trends

• Nearly 15–20% of Indian couples are estimated to face infertility, with higher rates in urban areas.
• India’s Total Fertility Rate has fallen below the replacement level, influenced by delayed parenthood and involuntary infertility.
• Male infertility is rising due to pollution exposure, lifestyle disorders, and stress.
• The demand for assisted reproductive technologies such as IVF is expanding rapidly.

Major causes

• Delayed marriages and late attempts at conception reduce biological fertility windows.
• Environmental pollutants and endocrine-disrupting chemicals disturb hormonal regulation.
• Sedentary habits, obesity, and PCOS are becoming widespread.
• Chronic stress disrupts the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis in both genders.
• Untreated infections continue to cause secondary infertility, particularly in rural regions.

Challenges

• Social stigma: Women are often blamed, leading to exclusion from rituals, emotional trauma, and marital instability.
• High cost of treatment: ART procedures remain unaffordable for many households, with minimal insurance coverage.
• Silence around male infertility: Reluctance among men to undergo testing delays proper diagnosis.
• Emotional burden: Repeated failures frequently trigger anxiety, depression, and relationship stress.
• Regulatory unevenness: Smaller centres sometimes function with poor oversight and exaggerated claims.

Government initiatives

• ART and surrogacy regulations mandate clinic registration and aim to prevent exploitation.
• Expansion of mental health services acknowledges the emotional dimension of infertility.
• Creation of national registries is improving transparency and outcome tracking.

Way forward

• Mandatory psychological counselling should accompany fertility treatment.
• Insurance reforms are necessary to prevent catastrophic expenditure.
• Public messaging must normalise joint responsibility of partners.
• Grassroots awareness can counter myths and stigma.
• Stronger regulatory audits are needed for ethical compliance.

UPSC Practice Questions Prelims (MCQ)

Q. With reference to infertility in India, consider the following statements:

1. Male factors contribute to a significant share of infertility cases.
2. Chronic psychological stress can affect reproductive hormones.
3. Assisted reproductive technologies are fully covered under standard health insurance in India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

Mains Question:

Q. Infertility in India is increasingly emerging as a socio-psychological challenge rather than merely a biomedical condition. Discuss the causes, associated stigma, and policy measures required. (10/15M)

2.Illegal Mining Crisis (Rat-Hole Mining in Meghalaya)

Context:

• Illegal mining refers to extraction without valid leases, environmental clearances, or in violation of judicial prohibitions.
• In Meghalaya, this largely means rat-hole mining, where workers enter extremely narrow horizontal tunnels or deep vertical shafts to manually extract coal.
• The practice was banned by the National Green Tribunal in 2014, and later restrictions were reiterated by the Supreme Court of India, yet operations persist because of strong demand for low-ash coal.

Visual reference: rat-hole mining

Key trends

• Repeated fatal accidents continue, especially in the East Jaintia Hills district.
• Large volumes of coal are believed to be extracted outside formal accounting, implying royalty loss.
• Satellite alerts generated under central monitoring systems often fail to translate into field enforcement.
• Labour is typically migrant, poorly insured, and engaged in highly unsafe work environments.

Implications:

1.Human cost

• Collapses, flooding, and gas explosions are common due to the absence of ventilation and structural design.
• Rescue becomes difficult because tunnels are unmapped and extremely narrow.

2.Environmental damage

• Acid mine drainage contaminates streams and rivers, turning water highly acidic and killing aquatic biodiversity.
• Deforestation, soil erosion, and land subsidence permanently scar fragile hill ecosystems.

3.Economic loss

• States lose royalty, GST, and transport revenues.
• Legal miners face unfair competition from cheaper illegal output.

Why control is difficult-

• Remote, forested terrain complicates inspection.
• Sections of the local economy depend heavily on mining income.
• Legal disputes over previously mined stock allow fresh coal to be disguised as old inventory.
• Weak coordination between satellite detection and district-level policing dilutes deterrence.

Initiatives in place

• The Mining Surveillance System uses satellite imagery to flag suspicious activity.
• Court-appointed committees periodically review compliance and restoration.
• Compensation packages are provided to victims’ families after accidents, though critics call this reactive.

Way forward

• Make action on satellite alerts time-bound and legally enforceable.
• Provide credible livelihood diversification such as tourism, agro-forestry, and small enterprises.
• Introduce digital tracking of mineral transport from pit to market.
• Strengthen accountability of district administrations.
• Move toward scientifically regulated mining with proper ventilation, slope stability, and worker insurance.

UPSC Practice Questions Prelims

Q. With reference to rat-hole mining in India, consider the following statements:

1. It involves digging narrow tunnels, often without scientific safety measures.
2. It has been completely eliminated after judicial bans.
3. It is associated with risks such as acid mine drainage.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 3 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

Mains Question:

Q. Illegal mining persists in several regions despite judicial prohibitions. Examine the economic compulsions, governance failures, and environmental consequences associated with rat-hole mining. Suggest a balanced strategy. (10/15M)

3.Watsuji Tetsurō and the philosophy of “Being-in-Betweenness”

Who was he?

• A major 20th-century Japanese philosopher (1889–1960) and one of the earliest thinkers in Japan to engage deeply with European philosophy.
• He wrote influential studies on Friedrich Nietzsche, Søren Kierkegaard, Martin Heidegger and G. W. F. Hegel, yet developed a distinctively Asian, relational ethics.
• His most important works are Fūdo (Climate and Culture) and Rinrigaku, which together shaped debates on environment, culture, and moral community.

Core philosophy

1) Critique of the Western individual

• He rejected the image of the human as an isolated, self-sufficient unit.
• According to him, what Europe treated as “universal” morality was actually based on a historically specific experience of individualism.
• Ethical reflection must therefore begin from relationships, not from the solitary ego.

2) Concept of Ningen (human being)

• The Japanese term implies both person and between-people.
• Human existence is structured by aida (betweenness): family, community, history, institutions, and environment.
• Thus, the self is at once individual and social; separation is never complete.

3) Emptiness and self-negation

• Influenced by Mahayana ideas of śūnyatā (no permanent essence).
• A moral life requires stepping back from ego-assertion so that mutual existence becomes possible.
• Ethics is therefore dynamic participation, not rigid rule-following.

4) Ethics as lived practice

• Ethics (rinrigaku) studies how people actually sustain shared life.
• Norms grow from customs, climate, labour, and historical memory.
• Morality is embedded in everyday cooperation.

5) Human–nature unity

• In Fūdo, climate and geography are not background conditions but active shapers of culture.
• Humans and environment continuously produce each other.
• This anticipates modern ecological and sustainability thinking.

Why he matters today-

Environmental crisis: Counters extreme anthropocentrism by showing humans as inseparable from ecological systems.

Alienation & mental health: Offers belonging and relational identity against loneliness produced by hyper-individual societies.

Decolonial thought: Demonstrates that ethical theory is not the monopoly of Western traditions.

Social responsibility: Encourages duty, care, and reciprocity instead of competition and ego-maximization.

UPSC Practice Questions Prelims

Q. With reference to the philosophy of Watsuji Tetsurō, consider the following statements:

1. He rejected the idea of the completely autonomous individual.
2. He argued that climate and geography influence ethical life.
3. His ethics is primarily based on abstract universal laws independent of society.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

Mains Question:

Q. “The self is constituted through relationships.” Examine this statement in the light of Watsuji Tetsurō’s idea of being-in-betweenness. How is it relevant in an age of ecological crisis and social alienation? (10/15M)

3. Sodium-ion Battery Technology

What it is?

• Sodium-ion batteries (SiBs) are rechargeable electrochemical cells that use sodium ions (Na⁺) to shuttle charge between electrodes.
• They operate on the same “rocking-chair” principle as lithium-ion battery but depend on far more abundant and geographically diversified materials.

How it works?

• During charging, Na⁺ ions move from cathode to anode through the electrolyte while electrons travel through the outer circuit.
• During discharge, ions return to the cathode and electrical energy is delivered.
• Aluminium can serve as the current collector on both sides, avoiding expensive copper.

Key advantages

• Resource abundance: Sodium is widely available from salt and soda ash, reducing exposure to lithium, cobalt, and nickel supply risks.
• Energy security: Helpful for countries seeking mineral diversification and reduced import vulnerability.
• Safety profile: Lower tendency toward thermal runaway; safer transport and storage at low charge.
• Manufacturing continuity: Existing Li-ion gigafactories can adapt with limited retooling.
• Cost trajectory: Potential for cheaper packs as raw material constraints ease.
• Grid relevance: Particularly attractive for renewable integration and large stationary storage.

Limitations

• Lower energy density: Heavier for the same energy → less ideal for long-range cars.
• Early commercialisation stage: Supply chains, standards, and recycling ecosystems are still evolving.
• Process sensitivity: Greater need for moisture control during manufacturing.
• Market positioning: More competitive in short-range mobility and storage rather than premium EVs.

Where they fit best

• Renewable energy buffering and grid balancing.
• Two- and three-wheelers, delivery fleets, entry-level EVs.
• Backup power and telecom towers.

Why it matters for India?

• Reduces dependence on imported lithium resources.
• Supports Make-in-India battery manufacturing.
• Complements solar and wind expansion where storage demand is exploding.
• Creates room for indigenous chemistry innovation rather than technology lock-in.

UPSC Practice Questions Prelims

Q. With reference to Sodium-ion batteries, consider the following statements:

1. They use sodium ions as charge carriers between electrodes.
2. Aluminium can be used as the current collector for both electrodes.
3. They currently offer higher energy density than advanced lithium-ion batteries.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

Mains Question:

Q. India’s energy transition requires storage solutions that are affordable, safe, and strategically secure. Discuss the potential and limitations of sodium-ion battery technology in this context. (10/15M)

4.International Space Station (ISS)

Context:

• The ISS is a permanently crewed space laboratory in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
• It functions as a platform for microgravity research, technology demonstration, and human spaceflight endurance studies.
• Continuous human presence has been maintained since November 2000.

Launch & historical evolution

• Assembly began in 1998 with the launch of the first module Zarya.
• Over two decades, additional laboratories, trusses, robotic arms, docking nodes, and power systems were attached in orbit.
• The station has hosted astronauts from more than 20 countries.

Participating agencies

The ISS represents one of the largest international scientific collaborations in history:

• NASA
• Roscosmos
• European Space Agency
• JAXA
• Canadian Space Agency

Objectives

• Conduct experiments impossible under Earth’s gravity.
• Prepare for future deep-space missions such as Moon and Mars exploration.
• Develop commercial activity in low Earth orbit.
• Demonstrate long-term peaceful cooperation among nations.

Key features

• Altitude: Roughly 400 km above Earth.
• Speed: Travels at about 28,000 km/h, orbiting Earth every ~90 minutes.
• Mass & size: Comparable to a football field; largest human-made structure in space.
• Power source: Extensive solar arrays generating electricity.
• Human-tended: Typically supports 6–7 astronauts at a time.
• Research scope: Life sciences, Earth observation, astronomy, robotics, and materials science.

Scientific importance

• Studies on bone density, muscle loss, immune response, and radiation exposure inform astronaut safety.
• Experiments in protein crystallisation and fluid behaviour aid medicine and industrial design.
• Earth-observation payloads support climate monitoring and disaster response.

Strategic and diplomatic value

• Symbol of science diplomacy, surviving geopolitical tensions on Earth.
• Built operational expertise in multinational crew management, docking, and resupply logistics.
• Acts as a bridge between government missions and private-sector participation.

UPSC Prelims Practice Question

Q. With reference to the International Space Station, consider the following statements:

1. It has been continuously inhabited since the year 2000.
2. It is operated by a partnership of five major space agencies.
3. It is located in geostationary orbit.

Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

UPSC Mains Practice Question

Q. The International Space Station represents both scientific advancement and geopolitical cooperation. Examine its contributions to space science and discuss the implications of its planned retirement for the future of global space governance. (10/15M)

5.Kangundi to be Declared Andhra Pradesh’s First Heritage Village

Why in News?

• The Government of Andhra Pradesh has announced that Kangundi village near Kuppam in Chittoor district will be declared the first Heritage Village of the State under the Union Government’s Swachh, Suramya and Sanskrutik framework.
• The initiative seeks to integrate heritage conservation, rural development, sanitation, cultural tourism, and community participation, thereby transforming living rural settlements into heritage-led growth models.
• This declaration represents a shift from monument-centric conservation toward the protection of entire cultural landscapes and living heritage systems, aligning with India’s evolving heritage governance philosophy.

About Kangundi Village — Cultural and Architectural Significance

Kangundi is known for its:

• Traditional South Indian temple complexes
• Village tanks, sacred groves, and processional routes
• Continuing ritual practices and festival traditions

The settlement preserves organic village morphology, with religious structures at the core, reflecting the classical temple-centered settlement model seen in historic South Indian villages.

Art and Architecture Linkages — Temple Traditions of Andhra Pradesh

Although specific temples of Kangundi are not nationally famous yet, the village belongs to the broader Dravidian architectural tradition, historically dominant in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.

(a) Dravidian Temple Architecture —

Key characteristics:

Pyramidal vimana over the sanctumTall gopurams marking temple entrancesAxial planning aligned with sacred geometry (vastu shastra)Mandapas for ritual gatheringsTemple tanks (pushkarinis) for ritual purification

These features connect Kangundi’s religious landscape to major Andhra temples such as:

• Tirupati Balaji (Venkateswara Temple) — Vijayanagara period
• Srikalahasti Temple — Chola-Vijayanagara fusion
• Lepakshi Veerabhadra Temple — Vijayanagara sculptural excellence

Thus, Kangundi represents the rural vernacular extension of classical Dravidian temple traditions.

(b) Vijayanagara Legacy in Andhra’s Rural Temple Culture

Most village temples in Rayalaseema and southern Andhra show Vijayanagara stylistic influence, characterised by:

• Large pillared mandapas
• Narrative friezes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas
• Integration of temple, tank, and market streets

This reflects the Vijayanagara philosophy of: “Temple as spiritual centre, market nucleus, and social institution.”

Swachh, Suramya and Sanskrutik Framework —

This central framework integrates three dimensions:

Dimension	Significance
Swachh	Sanitation, hygiene, waste management in heritage spaces
Suramya	Aesthetic improvement of streetscapes, facades, public spaces
Sanskrutik	Conservation of cultural practices, monuments, crafts

Static linkage:

Heritage Location	Nature of Heritage
Hampi (Karnataka)	Monumental urban heritage of Vijayanagara Empire
Raghurajpur (Odisha)	Heritage crafts village (Pattachitra painting)
Pragpur (Himachal Pradesh)	India’s first heritage village
Kangundi (Andhra Pradesh)	Temple-based rural cultural landscape

UPSC Prelims Question

Q.With reference to the recently declared heritage village Kangundi, consider the following statements:

1. The initiative reflects a shift from monument-centric conservation to protection of cultural landscapes.
2. The settlement pattern is associated with the Dravidian temple tradition where religious structures anchor village life.
3. The programme is part of UNESCO’s World Heritage Village scheme.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

UPSC Mains Question

Q.Heritage governance in India is gradually moving from monument protection toward preservation of living cultural landscapes. Discuss in the context of emerging heritage village models. (10/15M)