Araghchi Calls Chabahar a “Golden Gateway”; Urges India to Continue Development Defence Minister Lays Foundation Stone for Combat Aircraft Infrastructure Project in Andhra Pradesh Only Electric Three-Wheelers to be Registered from January 2027: CAQM Hantavirus Outbreak Highlights Growing Threat of Zoonotic Diseases Three Old Thermal Power Sites Chosen for New Nuclear Power Projects

1.Araghchi Calls Chabahar a “Golden Gateway”; Urges India to Continue Development

Why in News?

Iranian Foreign Minister Seyed Abbas Araghchi described the Chabahar Port as a “golden gateway” and appealed to India to continue investing in and developing the strategically important port project despite challenges arising from US sanctions on Iran.

Key Highlights

• Araghchi termed Chabahar Port a symbol of India-Iran cooperation and emphasized its importance for regional trade, connectivity, and economic integration.
• He stated that India can play a constructive role in ensuring peace and stability in West Asia because of its balanced and friendly relations with countries of the Persian Gulf region.
• Iran expressed hope that India would continue the development of the Chabahar project despite delays caused by US sanctions imposed on Tehran.
• Iran also indicated its willingness to resume oil exports to India if circumstances improve and sanctions-related obstacles are reduced.
• Araghchi criticized the growing military presence of external powers in the Gulf region and argued that regional security should be ensured by countries of the region themselves.
• Referring to the strategic importance of the Strait of Hormuz, he noted that Iran remains in coordination with India regarding maritime movement and regional security concerns.

Importance of Chabahar Port for India

• Chabahar Port is India’s first overseas port development project and is strategically located on Iran’s southeastern coast along the Gulf of Oman.
• The port provides India direct access to:
  • Afghanistan
  • Central Asia
  • Eurasia

without depending on Pakistan for land connectivity.

• It is a crucial component of the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), which aims to connect India with Iran, Central Asia, Russia, and Europe through a multimodal transport network.
• The project enhances India’s strategic presence in the Indian Ocean region and serves as a counterbalance to Gwadar Port in Pakistan, which is being developed by China under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).

Impact of US Sanctions

• US sanctions on Iran have slowed infrastructure development and investment activities at Chabahar Port.
• India’s oil imports from Iran have virtually stopped after sanctions restrictions intensified.
• Banking, insurance, shipping, and financial transactions linked to Iran remain difficult, affecting the pace of connectivity projects.

Broader Geopolitical Context

• The statement comes amid continuing tensions in West Asia, including concerns regarding maritime security in the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz.
• Iran has repeatedly argued that the presence of external powers, particularly the United States, contributes to instability in the region.
• India has maintained a balanced diplomatic approach by engaging both Iran and Gulf countries while protecting its strategic and energy interests.

Prelims corner

Chabahar Port

Chabahar Port is located in southeastern Iran on the Gulf of Oman and is India’s first overseas port development project. The port is strategically important because it allows India to access Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Eurasia without depending on Pakistan for land transit. India is developing the port through India Ports Global Limited. Chabahar is also viewed as an important strategic and commercial counterbalance to Chinese influence in the region.

International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)

The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) is a major multimodal transport project involving sea, rail, and road connectivity among India, Iran, Central Asia, Russia, and Europe. The corridor aims to reduce transportation cost and transit time for trade between India and Eurasian countries. Chabahar Port is considered an important gateway for India’s participation in this corridor and for strengthening regional connectivity.

Strait of Hormuz

Strait of Hormuz is a narrow but highly strategic maritime passage connecting the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. It is one of the world’s most important oil transit chokepoints, through which a large proportion of global crude oil and LNG supplies pass. Any geopolitical tension in this region directly impacts global energy prices and maritime trade.

Gwadar Port

Gwadar Port is located in Pakistan’s Balochistan province near the Strait of Hormuz. The port is being developed by China under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which is a flagship component of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Gwadar’s strategic location enhances China’s presence in the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean region.

Gulf of Oman

The Gulf of Oman connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz and serves as an important maritime route for international trade and energy transportation. It holds major geopolitical significance because it links the Indian Ocean region with the oil-rich Persian Gulf region.

India-Iran Relations

India and Iran have traditionally maintained cooperation in areas such as energy security, connectivity, regional trade, and cultural exchanges. Iran was once a major supplier of crude oil to India, but Indian imports declined significantly due to US sanctions on Tehran. Despite challenges, both countries continue to cooperate on strategic projects like Chabahar Port because of their long-term geopolitical and economic importance.

2.Defence Minister Lays Foundation Stone for Combat Aircraft Infrastructure Project in Andhra Pradesh

Why in News?

Defence Minister Rajnath Singh and Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu laid the foundation stone for a major defence manufacturing and combat aircraft infrastructure project worth nearly ₹15,000–16,000 crore in the Sri Sathya Sai district of Andhra Pradesh. The project is closely linked with India’s indigenous fifth-generation fighter aircraft programme — the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA).

Key Highlights

• The project includes the establishment of an Aircraft Integration and Advanced Flight Testing Centre, which will support the development, integration, validation, and certification of advanced combat aircraft platforms.
• The infrastructure is being developed primarily to support the Aeronautical Development Agency led Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) programme under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
• The facility is strategically important because only a few countries possess dedicated advanced flight-testing and combat aircraft integration infrastructure for fifth-generation fighter programmes.
• Bharat Dynamics Limited announced an investment of nearly ₹480 crore for manufacturing advanced autonomous underwater systems and torpedoes, strengthening India’s naval and underwater warfare capabilities.
• Agneyastra, a subsidiary of Bharat Forge, will invest around ₹1,500 crore for the development of advanced weapon systems and defence technologies.
• HFCL will establish electrical fuse manufacturing facilities with an investment of approximately ₹1,294 crore.
• A consortium of eight drone companies is establishing a Drone City in Kurnool under the Make in India initiative to strengthen India’s drone manufacturing ecosystem.

Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)

• The Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is India’s indigenous twin-engine, fifth-generation stealth multirole fighter aircraft being developed for the Indian Air Force and Indian Navy.
• The project is being designed and executed by the Aeronautical Development Agency under DRDO.

Major Features of AMCA

• The aircraft incorporates advanced stealth technology to reduce radar visibility and improve survivability in hostile environments.
• It will possess internal weapons bays, allowing weapons carriage without compromising stealth characteristics.
• The fighter is expected to have supercruise capability, enabling sustained supersonic flight without using afterburners.
• Advanced avionics, integrated artificial intelligence systems, and network-centric warfare capabilities are planned to enhance operational effectiveness.
• The aircraft is designed as a multirole platform capable of:
  • Air superiority missions
  • Air-to-ground strikes
  • Electronic warfare
  • Reconnaissance operations

Strategic Importance of the AMCA Programme

• The AMCA programme is considered a flagship project under the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative in the defence sector.
• It aims to reduce India’s long-term dependence on imported fighter aircraft and advanced defence technologies.
• The aircraft is expected to gradually supplement and eventually replace ageing platforms in the Indian Air Force.
• Successful development of AMCA would place India among a small group of countries possessing indigenous fifth-generation fighter aircraft capability.
• The programme is also expected to strengthen India’s aerospace manufacturing ecosystem and increase private-sector participation in high-technology defence production.

Private Sector Participation

India has shortlisted three major private-sector-led consortia for prototype development and production of the AMCA:

• Tata Advanced Systems Limited
• Consortium led by Larsen & Toubro along with Bharat Electronics Limited
• Consortium led by Bharat Forge along with BEML and Data Patterns

This reflects the government’s growing emphasis on public-private collaboration in defence manufacturing.

Strategic Significance for Andhra Pradesh

• Andhra Pradesh is gradually emerging as an important defence manufacturing and aerospace hub due to:
  • Availability of large land parcels
  • Industrial infrastructure
  • Proximity to Bengaluru’s aerospace ecosystem
  • Strong port connectivity
• The development of a military-industrial complex in the region is expected to generate employment, attract investments, and strengthen India’s indigenous defence production ecosystem.

Prelims Corner

🔹 Fifth-Generation Fighter Aircraft

Fifth-generation fighter aircraft are advanced combat jets incorporating stealth technology, sensor fusion, network-centric warfare capability, supercruise capability, and highly advanced avionics. Major examples globally include the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, Chengdu J-20, and Sukhoi Su-57.

🔹 Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA)

Aeronautical Development Agency is an autonomous body functioning under the Ministry of Defence. It is responsible for the design and development of advanced military aircraft programmes in India, including the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) programme and the AMCA project.

🔹 Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

Defence Research and Development Organisation is India’s premier defence research agency under the Ministry of Defence. It develops advanced military technologies and systems across aerospace, missiles, naval systems, electronics, artificial intelligence, and cyber warfare.

🔹 Supercruise Capability

Supercruise refers to the ability of a fighter aircraft to maintain sustained supersonic flight without using afterburners. This improves fuel efficiency, operational range, and combat effectiveness.

🔹 Internal Weapons Bay

An internal weapons bay allows missiles and bombs to be carried inside the aircraft fuselage instead of external hardpoints. This significantly reduces radar signature and improves stealth capability.

🔹 Make in India in Defence Sector

The Make in India initiative in defence aims to increase indigenous manufacturing, reduce arms imports, encourage private-sector participation, promote defence exports, and strengthen India’s long-term strategic autonomy.

3.Only Electric Three-Wheelers to be Registered from January 2027: CAQM

Why in News?

The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has announced a phased transition towards mandatory registration of only electric three-wheelers across Delhi-NCR.

The Commission has also introduced stricter anti-pollution measures such as restricting fuel supply to vehicles without valid Pollution Under Control Certificates (PUCCs) and strengthening monitoring mechanisms to tackle vehicular pollution and stubble burning.

Key Developments

• The Commission has directed that from January 1, 2027, only electric L5-category three-wheelers will be allowed to be newly registered in Delhi.
• The rule will later be extended to high-density NCR districts such as Gurugram, Faridabad, Sonipat, Ghaziabad, and Gautam Buddha Nagar from January 1, 2028, while the remaining NCR districts will adopt the policy from January 1, 2029.
• The order applies to both passenger and goods-carrying three-wheelers. However, existing diesel and CNG-operated vehicles will continue to operate until they are phased out gradually over time.
• CAQM has also decided that from October 1, 2026, fuel stations across NCR will not provide fuel to vehicles lacking a valid Pollution Under Control Certificate (PUCC).
• The system will be monitored through Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras to improve enforcement and compliance.
• The Commission further reviewed the issue of crop-residue burning and directed NCR states to fully implement the 2026 Action Plan aimed at eliminating paddy stubble burning.
• Punjab alone recorded nearly 8,986 stubble-burning incidents between April 1 and May 14 this year, indicating the continuing seriousness of seasonal pollution.
• In order to improve air-quality surveillance, CAQM has approved the establishment of 46 additional Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS), taking the total number of monitoring stations across NCR to 157.

Significance of the Decision

• Vehicular emissions remain one of the largest contributors to air pollution in Delhi-NCR, particularly in the form of PM2.5 and PM10 particulate matter. Transport-related pollution from petrol, diesel, and CNG-powered vehicles consistently contributes to deteriorating air quality and severe public health concerns in the region.
• Three-wheelers constitute a major component of urban transport and last-mile connectivity in NCR cities.
• Their transition to electric mobility is expected to significantly reduce particulate emissions, improve urban air quality, and support India’s larger climate and clean-energy commitments.
• The decision also aligns with India’s broader policy push towards electric mobility under initiatives such as the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme and the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.
• The government aims to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, strengthen domestic EV manufacturing, and promote sustainable transportation systems.
• The expansion of the air-quality monitoring network will improve scientific assessment of pollution levels, support better forecasting systems, and enable more localized policy responses during severe pollution episodes.

Stubble Burning and Air Pollution

• CAQM expressed concern regarding the increase in crop-residue burning incidents in Punjab and Haryana.
• Stubble burning remains a major source of winter air pollution in northern India because it releases large quantities of particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
• The Commission has directed state governments to strengthen enforcement measures, promote residue-management technologies, and implement state-specific action plans before the upcoming paddy harvesting season.
• The long-term objective is to completely eliminate paddy stubble burning in the NCR region and adjoining states.

About CAQM

• The Commission for Air Quality Management is a statutory body established under the Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021.
• It was created to provide a permanent institutional framework for coordinated air-quality management in Delhi-NCR and adjoining regions.
• The Commission exercises jurisdiction over Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh in matters related to transboundary air pollution affecting the National Capital Region.
• CAQM possesses extensive powers to issue binding directions, coordinate among governments and agencies, regulate polluting activities, conduct inspections, and formulate long-term air-quality management strategies.
• Its directions are legally enforceable on all concerned authorities and institutions.

Prelims Corner

🔹 Pollution Under Control Certificate (PUCC)

A Pollution Under Control Certificate is a mandatory document issued after testing vehicular emissions. It certifies that the emissions produced by a vehicle remain within permissible environmental limits prescribed under pollution-control regulations and the Motor Vehicles Act.

🔹 PM2.5 and PM10

PM2.5 and PM10 are categories of fine particulate pollutants present in the atmosphere. PM2.5 particles are especially dangerous because of their extremely small size, allowing them to penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream, causing respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and other health complications.

🔹 Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS)

Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations are automated systems established to monitor real-time air pollution levels. These stations measure pollutants such as particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and carbon monoxide, helping authorities in forecasting pollution levels and implementing control measures.

🔹 Bharat Stage Emission Standards

Bharat Stage emission norms are standards introduced by the Government of India to regulate pollution from motor vehicles. The current BS-VI standards are significantly stricter than previous norms and aim to reduce vehicular emissions by lowering sulphur content and improving engine efficiency.

🔹 L5 Category Vehicles

L5 category vehicles refer to motorized three-wheelers used for passenger and goods transportation. These include auto-rickshaws and cargo three-wheelers that form an important part of urban transport systems across Indian cities.

4.Hantavirus Outbreak Highlights Growing Threat of Zoonotic Diseases

Why in News?

• Recent concerns regarding outbreaks of Hantavirus have once again drawn global attention to the increasing frequency of zoonotic diseases and the growing risk of animal-to-human pathogen transmission.
• Experts have warned that factors such as deforestation, rapid urbanisation, industrial livestock farming, biodiversity loss, and climate change are making zoonotic spillovers more common and dangerous.

Understanding Zoonotic Spillover

• Zoonotic spillover refers to the transmission of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi from animals to humans.
• These pathogens are often carried by wildlife or domestic animals and may eventually adapt to human hosts, leading to outbreaks, epidemics, or even pandemics.
• Scientists estimate that nearly three-fourths of emerging infectious diseases affecting humans originate in animals
• Diseases such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola, SARS, MERS, COVID-19, avian influenza, and rabies are all examples of zoonotic diseases.
• Spillover generally occurs through a multi-stage process in which pathogens are first shed by reservoir hosts such as bats, rodents, birds, or primates.
• The pathogen then survives in the environment, through vectors like mosquitoes and ticks, or via direct human-animal contact before infecting humans. In some cases, pathogens further evolve the ability for sustained human-to-human transmission.

Why Zoonotic Outbreaks Are Increasing

Human activities are increasingly disrupting natural ecosystems and bringing humans, livestock, and wildlife into closer contact. This significantly increases opportunities for pathogens to cross species barriers.

Deforestation and Habitat Fragmentation

Large-scale deforestation for agriculture, mining, infrastructure, and urban expansion destroys natural habitats and forces wildlife species to move closer to human settlements. Fragmented habitats increase direct interaction between humans and reservoir hosts carrying infectious pathogens.

Industrial Livestock Farming

Intensive animal farming involving large populations of genetically similar animals creates ideal conditions for pathogens to multiply, mutate, and spread rapidly. High-density poultry and livestock farms often act as “mixing vessels” where viruses can evolve and potentially infect humans.

Challenges in Global Disease Surveillance

• Experts have pointed out that present global surveillance systems remain inadequate for early detection of zoonotic threats.
• Veterinary monitoring, wildlife disease surveillance, and environmental pathogen sampling continue to receive limited funding and policy attention in many countries.
• Although public-health systems often focus on detecting diseases after outbreaks occur in humans, much less attention is given to monitoring pathogens circulating within animal populations and ecosystems.
• Rapid international travel, global trade networks, and urban population density further increase the speed at which local outbreaks can become international public-health emergencies.

One Health Approach

The growing frequency of zoonotic outbreaks has strengthened support for the “One Health” approach, which recognises that human health, animal health, and environmental health are deeply interconnected.

The One Health framework promotes coordinated monitoring and policy action across multiple sectors, including:

• Public health
• Veterinary sciences
• Wildlife conservation
• Environmental management
• Agriculture
• Climate science

Experts have recommended integrated surveillance systems, real-time data sharing, habitat conservation, improved livestock biosecurity, and stronger regulation of wildlife trade to reduce future spillover risks.

Prelims Corner

🔹 Hantavirus

Hantavirus is a group of viruses primarily transmitted to humans through contact with infected rodents, especially through their urine, droppings, or saliva. Human infection can cause severe respiratory and renal illnesses, including Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) and Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS).

🔹 Zoonotic Diseases

Zoonotic diseases are infections naturally transmitted between animals and humans. These diseases may spread through direct contact, contaminated food or water, vectors such as mosquitoes, or environmental exposure.

🔹 Reservoir Host

A reservoir host is an animal species that naturally carries a pathogen without necessarily becoming ill itself. These hosts act as long-term sources of infection and play an important role in zoonotic disease transmission.

🔹 One Health Approach

The One Health approach is an integrated and multidisciplinary framework recognising the close relationship between human health, animal health, and environmental health. It promotes coordinated efforts across sectors to prevent and manage infectious diseases.

🔹 International Health Regulations (IHR)

The International Health Regulations are legally binding international rules adopted under the World Health Organization to strengthen global cooperation in preventing, detecting, and responding to public-health emergencies that may spread across borders.

🔹 Vector-Borne Diseases

Vector-borne diseases are illnesses transmitted by organisms such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, or sandflies. Examples include malaria, dengue, chikungunya, Lyme disease, and Zika virus infection.

5.Three Old Thermal Power Sites Chosen for New Nuclear Power Projects

Why in News?

• A government panel has shortlisted three old thermal power plant sites for the development of new nuclear power projects as part of India’s long-term strategy to expand clean energy generation and achieve 100 GWe nuclear power capacity by 2047.
• The move is also linked with the recently enacted SHANTI Act, 2025, which opens India’s nuclear sector to greater private-sector participation.

Key Developments

• A sub-committee constituted under the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) identified three ageing thermal power plant locations suitable for conversion into nuclear energy sites.
• Two of these locations are considered appropriate for large 700 MWe nuclear reactors, while another site is being evaluated for smaller 220 MWe reactors.
• The site selection exercise was undertaken in January 2025 as part of a broader initiative to repurpose ageing coal-based infrastructure and accelerate the expansion of India’s nuclear power capacity.
• The government aims to increase India’s installed civil nuclear power capacity from around 8.8 GWe at present to nearly 100 GWe by the year 2047, which coincides with the centenary year of India’s independence.

The repurposing strategy is being driven by several factors, including:

• Ageing coal-fired thermal power plants
• Increasing environmental concerns
• Stricter emission norms
• Rising pressure to decarbonise the power sector
• Availability of existing transmission and industrial infrastructure at thermal plant sites

Site Selection Process

The CEA sub-committee initially shortlisted 28 thermal power plant sites across the country. Preference was given to:

• Retired thermal units
• Plants older than 40 years
• Sites with declining operational efficiency

A detailed 17-point evaluation framework was used for assessment. The criteria included:

• Availability of adequate land
• Accessibility and logistics
• Water availability
• Geological and seismotectonic conditions
• Population density around the site
• Existing transmission infrastructure
• Environmental suitability

For a nuclear project consisting of two 700 MWe reactor units, a minimum land requirement of nearly 340 hectares was prescribed.

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

Experts believe many repurposed thermal power sites may be more suitable for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) rather than very large nuclear plants.

SMRs are compact nuclear reactors with lower generating capacity compared to conventional reactors. They are designed for:

• Lower capital costs
• Modular construction
• Faster deployment
• Enhanced safety features
• Flexible site requirements

The government is reportedly considering policy and regulatory adjustments to facilitate future deployment of SMRs in India.

Importance of Nuclear Energy for India

Nuclear energy is increasingly viewed as an important component of India’s long-term energy security and climate strategy because it provides:

• Reliable baseload electricity
• Low-carbon power generation
• Reduced dependence on fossil fuels
• Support for industrial growth and urbanisation

The expansion of nuclear power is also linked to India’s commitments under global climate agreements and its net-zero emission target by 2070.

SHANTI Act, 2025

• The Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India (SHANTI) Act, 2025 represents a major reform of India’s civil nuclear sector.

Major Features of the SHANTI Act

The Act allows private Indian companies and joint ventures to participate in building, owning, operating, and decommissioning nuclear power plants under a regulated licensing system. This marks a significant shift from the earlier state-dominated structure.

The legislation also replaces and consolidates older laws such as:

• The Atomic Energy Act, 1962
• The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010

The Act grants statutory status to the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), making it an independent regulator accountable directly to Parliament.

The nuclear liability framework has also been modified through:

• An operator-liability model
• A graded liability structure based on reactor size
• Removal of supplier liability provisions that had earlier discouraged foreign investment

The Act additionally allows conditional patent protection for peaceful civilian nuclear technologies while maintaining safeguards for strategic and defence-related technologies.

India’s Nuclear Energy Targets

India has established ambitious nuclear capacity expansion goals:

• 22 GW by 2032
• 47 GW by 2037
• 67 GW by 2042
• 100 GW by 2047

The SHANTI Act is expected to play a central role in achieving these targets by improving regulatory clarity, encouraging private participation, and facilitating advanced reactor technologies.

Prelims Corner

🔹 Nuclear Power Capacity

Nuclear power capacity is generally measured in gigawatts electric (GWe), which represents the electricity-generating capability of nuclear reactors connected to the power grid.

🔹 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

India’s 700 MWe nuclear reactors are primarily based on Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor technology, which uses heavy water as both coolant and moderator while employing natural uranium as fuel.

🔹 Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

Small Modular Reactors are compact nuclear reactors with smaller generating capacity than conventional reactors. They are designed for modular manufacturing, lower upfront investment, improved safety systems, and deployment in remote or industrial locations.

🔹 Exclusion Zone in Nuclear Plants

The exclusion zone refers to the designated area surrounding a nuclear reactor where public habitation and certain activities are restricted for safety reasons in the event of a nuclear emergency.

🔹 Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board is India’s nuclear safety regulator responsible for ensuring radiation safety, reactor safety, and regulation of civilian nuclear facilities.

🔹 India’s Nuclear Energy Programme

India’s nuclear programme follows a three-stage strategy proposed by Homi Jehangir Bhabha, focusing on:

• Natural uranium-based PHWRs
• Fast breeder reactors
• Thorium-based reactors for long-term energy security.