Right to Walk on Footpaths: Supreme Court Judgment Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) in the Western Ghats Right to Walk on Footpaths: Expanding the Scope of Article 21 Laser-Induced Terahertz Vibrations: A Step Towards Next-Generation Computing Rakhigarhi Skeleton Investigation: Reconstructing the Human Story of the Harappans

1.Right to Walk on Footpaths: Supreme Court Judgment

Why in News?

The Supreme Court recently declared that the right to walk safely on demarcated footpaths is a Fundamental Right, placing pedestrian rights above the convenience of motor vehicles. The judgment comes against the backdrop of a sharp rise in pedestrian fatalities across India and calls for a dedicated legal framework to ensure pedestrian safety.

Background

• The judgment arose from a case involving the death of a five-year-old child who was hit by a tanker while walking to school.
• The Court observed that Indian cities and roads are overwhelmingly designed for vehicles, often neglecting the most basic mode of transport—walking.
• With pedestrian deaths increasing at an alarming rate, the Court emphasized that safe walking infrastructure is not merely an urban planning issue but a constitutional obligation.

Rising Pedestrian Fatalities in India

Pedestrian safety has emerged as a major public policy concern.

• Between 2015 and 2024, overall road fatalities increased by about 21%.
• During the same period, pedestrian deaths rose by nearly 163%.
• Pedestrian fatalities increased from 13,894 in 2015 to 36,526 in 2024.
• Their share in total road deaths rose from 9.5% to over 20%.
• More than 1.8 lakh pedestrians lost their lives between 2019 and 2024.
• National Highways accounted for nearly one-third of pedestrian deaths.
• Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Bihar recorded the highest number of fatalities.

These figures indicate that pedestrians constitute one of the most vulnerable categories of road users in India.

Constitutional Basis of the Right to Walk

The Supreme Court linked pedestrian rights to multiple constitutional provisions.

Article 21 – Right to Life and Personal Liberty

The right to life includes the right to move safely without being exposed to avoidable dangers on public roads. Safe footpaths are therefore essential for ensuring dignity, security, and quality of life.

Article 19(1)(d) – Freedom of Movement

Citizens have a constitutional right to move freely throughout the territory of India. This freedom loses meaning if roads are unsafe for pedestrians.

Article 19(1)(a), (b) and (c)

Walking facilitates freedom of expression, assembly, and association. Public spaces and footpaths enable social interaction and democratic participation.

Article 39(b)

The Court observed that footpaths constitute material resources of the community and must be managed to serve the common good.

Key Observations of the Supreme Court

The Court made several important observations:

• Pedestrian rights take precedence over motorized traffic.
• Walking is the most basic and universal mode of transport.
• Urban infrastructure cannot be planned solely around vehicles.
• Safe and accessible footpaths are a constitutional necessity.
• Citizens can seek legal remedies if pedestrian rights are violated.
• Urban authorities have a duty to create and maintain walkable infrastructure.

The Court also criticized the existing legal framework for focusing primarily on vehicles rather than people.

Implications of the Judgment

• Shift Towards People-Centric Urban Planning: The judgment encourages a transition from vehicle-oriented development to pedestrian-friendly urban design.
• Strengthening Road Safety: Improved footpaths, crossings, and pedestrian facilities can significantly reduce road fatalities.
• Accountability of Public Authorities: Municipal bodies, development authorities, and local governments may now face greater responsibility for ensuring pedestrian infrastructure.
• Recognition of Walkability as a Public Right: The judgment expands the understanding of mobility rights by recognizing walking as an essential component of urban citizenship.

Challenges in Implementation

Poor Footpath InfrastructureMany cities either lack footpaths or have encroached, damaged, and discontinuous pedestrian pathways.Vehicle-Centric PlanningUrban planning has traditionally prioritized road widening and vehicle movement over pedestrian convenience.Weak EnforcementIllegal parking, street encroachments, and commercial occupation of footpaths often remain unchecked.Funding ConstraintsLocal bodies frequently face financial and technical limitations in creating and maintaining quality pedestrian infrastructure.

Way Forward

• Enact a dedicated pedestrian rights and safety law.
• Develop national standards for footpath design and accessibility.
• Integrate pedestrian mobility into urban transport planning.
• Strengthen enforcement against encroachments and illegal parking.
• Establish an independent regulatory mechanism for pedestrian safety.
• Promote universal accessibility for children, elderly persons, and persons with disabilities.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s recognition of the right to walk on footpaths as a Fundamental Right marks a significant step toward people-centric governance and inclusive urban development. As pedestrian deaths continue to rise, the judgment reinforces the principle that roads are meant not only for vehicles but also for citizens exercising their constitutional right to move safely and with dignity.

UPSC Prelims MCQQ. With reference to the Supreme Court’s recognition of the right to walk on footpaths, consider the following statements:The Court linked the right to walk with Article 21 of the Constitution. The Court observed that footpaths can be viewed as material resources of the community under Article 39(b). The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 explicitly recognizes the right to walk on footpaths as a Fundamental Right. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: (a)UPSC Mains QuestionQ. The Supreme Court’s recent recognition of the right to walk on footpaths as a Fundamental Right reflects a shift towards people-centric urban governance. Discuss the constitutional basis, significance, and challenges associated with ensuring pedestrian rights in India. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

2.Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) in the Western Ghats

Why in News?

The Union Government has issued the seventh draft notification for declaring parts of the Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). However, the proposal continues to face opposition from states over concerns relating to livelihoods, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local economic activities.

About the Western Ghats

The Western Ghats is a 1,500-km-long mountain chain running parallel to India’s western coast across Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

The region is globally recognized for its ecological significance:

• One of the world’s eight hottest biodiversity hotspots.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Source of major peninsular rivers such as Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Tungabhadra, and Periyar.
• Home to thousands of endemic species of flora and fauna.
• Plays a critical role in regulating the Indian monsoon and water security.

What is an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA)?

An ESA is a region notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 where certain activities are regulated or prohibited to protect fragile ecosystems from environmental degradation.

The objective is not to stop development entirely but to ensure that economic activities remain environmentally sustainable.

Evolution of the ESA Debate

Madhav Gadgil Committee (Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel), 2011

The committee recommended a highly conservation-oriented approach.

Key recommendations:

• Entire Western Ghats area (about 1,29,037 sq km) to be declared ESA.
• Classification into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ I, II, III).
• Strong restrictions on mining, large dams, thermal power plants, and polluting industries.
• Greater participation of local communities in environmental governance.

The recommendations faced resistance from states due to concerns over developmental restrictions.

K. Kasturirangan Committee, 2013

The committee adopted a more balanced conservation-development approach.

Key recommendations:

• Identified approximately 60,000 sq km as ESA.
• Distinguished between:
  • Natural Landscape (40%) – requiring protection.
  • Cultural Landscape (60%) – including settlements, agriculture, and plantations.
• Proposed prohibition of:
  • Mining and quarrying.
  • Thermal power plants.
  • Red-category highly polluting industries.
  • Large construction projects.

Latest ESA Notification

The latest draft notification proposes:

• ESA coverage of 56,825 sq km.
• Village-level mapping for greater accuracy.
• State-wise and phased implementation.
• Continued restrictions on environmentally harmful activities.

An expert committee headed by Sanjay Kumar has been working to address concerns raised by states and local communities.

Why Conservation of the Western Ghats is Important

Biodiversity Conservation

The Western Ghats contain:

• Over 7,000 flowering plant species.
• Numerous endemic mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish.
• Flagship species such as the Lion-tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Tahr, and Malabar Civet.

Water Security

The Ghats function as India’s major water tower by feeding several perennial rivers that support agriculture, drinking water supply, and hydropower generation.

Climate Regulation

The mountain range influences southwest monsoon rainfall and helps regulate regional climate patterns.

Disaster Risk Reduction

Forests and natural vegetation reduce:

• Landslides
• Soil erosion
• Flash floods

Recent extreme weather events in Kerala and Karnataka have highlighted the ecological importance of maintaining fragile mountain ecosystems.

Livelihood Support

Millions of people depend on the Western Ghats for:

• Agriculture
• Plantation crops
• Fisheries
• Forest resources
• Eco-tourism

Key Concerns Raised by States

Livelihood and Agriculture IssuesStates fear that ESA regulations could affect farmers, plantation owners, and local economic activities.Development ConstraintsRestrictions on mining, infrastructure projects, roads, and industries are viewed as barriers to economic growth.Local ResistanceCommunities often fear displacement or excessive regulatory control over land use.Federal ConcernsSeveral states argue that environmental regulations should adequately reflect local socio-economic realities and state-specific requirements.

Way Forward

• Adopt a participatory conservation model involving local communities.
• Ensure scientific village-level mapping of ecologically sensitive regions.
• Provide compensation and financial incentives to states undertaking conservation efforts.
• Promote sustainable agriculture, eco-tourism, and green livelihoods.
• Balance environmental protection with developmental aspirations through cooperative federalism.

Conclusion

The Western Ghats represent one of India’s most valuable ecological assets, supporting biodiversity, water security, climate stability, and livelihoods. The prolonged ESA debate highlights the challenge of balancing conservation with development. A collaborative approach that combines ecological protection, local participation, and sustainable development remains essential for securing the future of this globally significant ecosystem.

UPSC Prelims MCQQ. With reference to the Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) proposal for the Western Ghats, consider the following statements:The Madhav Gadgil Committee recommended declaring the entire Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area. The Kasturirangan Committee distinguished between natural landscapes and cultural landscapes. Mining and quarrying activities are proposed to be prohibited in the notified ESA areas. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: (d)UPSC Mains QuestionQ. The prolonged debate over the Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) notification in the Western Ghats reflects the tension between environmental conservation and economic development. Discuss the significance of the Western Ghats and examine the challenges in implementing ESA regulations. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

3.Right to Walk on Footpaths: Expanding the Scope of Article 21

Why in News?

The Supreme Court has held that the right to walk safely on demarcated footpaths is a Fundamental Right under Article 21, placing pedestrian rights above the convenience of motor vehicles. The judgment comes amid a sharp rise in pedestrian fatalities across India and calls for a paradigm shift in urban planning.

Background

• The ruling emerged from a case involving the death of a five-year-old child in a road accident.
• While adjudicating the matter, the Court observed that Indian cities have increasingly become vehicle-centric, often ignoring the safety and mobility needs of pedestrians.
• The Court emphasized that roads are public spaces meant for all citizens, not merely for motorized transport.

Constitutional Basis of the Right to Walk

Article 21 – Right to Life and Personal LibertyThe Court held that safe pedestrian movement forms an essential component of the right to live with dignity.Walking is not merely a mode of transport but a basic human activity necessary for education, livelihood, health, and social participation.Article 19(1)(d)Citizens possess the right to move freely throughout the territory of India. Safe and accessible footpaths are necessary for the meaningful exercise of this freedom.Article 19(1)(a), (b) and (c)Walking enables citizens to exercise freedoms related to expression, assembly, and association by facilitating access to public spaces.Article 39(b)The Court viewed footpaths as material resources of the community that must be distributed and managed for the common good.

Why the Judgment is Significant?

Growing Pedestrian Crisis

India has witnessed a dramatic increase in pedestrian fatalities.

• Pedestrian deaths rose from 13,894 in 2015 to 36,526 in 2024.
• Increase of nearly 163% over a decade.
• Pedestrians now constitute over 20% of total road fatalities.
• More than 1.8 lakh pedestrians lost their lives between 2019 and 2024.

This highlights the urgent need to redesign urban spaces around human safety.

Shift from Vehicle-Centric Planning

For decades, urban development has focused on:

• Wider roads
• Flyovers
• Elevated corridors
• Faster vehicular movement

Pedestrian infrastructure often remains neglected, resulting in unsafe mobility conditions.

Challenges Faced by Pedestrians in India

• Inadequate Pedestrian Infrastructure: Many urban areas suffer from poorly maintained footpaths, discontinuous walkways, and insufficient pedestrian facilities, compromising safety and accessibility.
• Encroachment of Public Spaces: Footpaths are frequently occupied by vendors, parked vehicles, and unauthorized structures, forcing pedestrians to share road space with vehicular traffic.
• Automobile-Centric Urban Planning: Urban development policies often prioritize vehicular mobility over pedestrian needs, resulting in reduced walking spaces and unsafe road environments.
• Lack of Universal Accessibility: Pedestrian infrastructure often fails to accommodate the needs of persons with disabilities, elderly citizens, and other vulnerable groups.

Way Forward

Adopt a Pedestrian-First Urban Policy:Urban planning should treat walking as the foundation of mobility rather than an afterthought.

Dedicated Pedestrian Legislation:A comprehensive law may define standards, responsibilities, and accountability mechanisms for pedestrian safety.

Universal Accessibility:Footpaths should be designed for:

• Elderly persons
• Children
• Persons with disabilities

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s ruling marks a significant expansion of Article 21 by recognizing that the right to life includes the right to walk safely and with dignity. At a time when pedestrian deaths are rising sharply, the judgment calls for a fundamental reorientation of urban planning—from vehicle-centric development to human-centric mobility. Ensuring safe footpaths is not merely an infrastructure issue but a constitutional obligation rooted in the principles of dignity, equality, and inclusive urban governance.

UPSC Prelims MCQQ. With reference to the Supreme Court’s recent observations on pedestrian rights, consider the following statements:The right to walk safely on footpaths has been recognized as part of Article 21. The Court linked the right to walk with Article 19(1)(d) relating to freedom of movement. The Motor Vehicles Act explicitly recognizes the right to walk on footpaths as a Fundamental Right. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: (b)UPSC Mains QuestionQ. “Pedestrian mobility is a constitutional issue as much as an urban planning challenge.” In the light of the recent Supreme Court judgment on the right to walk safely on footpaths, discuss the need for pedestrian-centric urban governance in India. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

4.Laser-Induced Terahertz Vibrations: A Step Towards Next-Generation Computing

Why in News?

Researchers have demonstrated a breakthrough technique to generate terahertz (THz) frequency atomic vibrations using laser pulses in a platinum-copper superlattice. The study, published in Nature Communications, opens new possibilities for ultra-fast computing, spintronics, and advanced material engineering.

What is the Breakthrough?

Scientists successfully induced coherent atomic vibrations at approximately 1 THz (one trillion oscillations per second) with a strain amplitude of nearly 1%, a significant achievement in manipulating matter at atomic scales.

Unlike conventional understanding where heat drives atomic motion, the study found that electron pressure is responsible for generating these ultrafast vibrations.

How Does the Process Work?

Laser Excitation

• Ultrafast laser pulses are directed at a specially engineered platinum-copper superlattice.
• The laser energizes electrons within the material.

Electron Pressure Generation

• Excited electrons create localized pressure before thermal energy disperses.
• This pressure directly pushes atoms, producing rapid mechanical vibrations.

Terahertz Atomic Motion

• Atoms oscillate at THz frequencies, generating strain waves across the material.
• These vibrations occur much faster than conventional mechanical processes.

Observation Technique

• Researchers used Ultrafast X-ray Diffraction (UXRD) to observe atomic movements in real time.

Key Scientific Concepts

Terahertz (THz) WavesElectromagnetic frequencies between microwaves and infrared radiation.Frequency range: roughly 0.1–10 THz.Important for next-generation communication, sensing, and computing technologies.Strain EngineeringTechnique of modifying a material’s physical properties through controlled mechanical deformation.Can alter electrical conductivity, magnetism, and optical behavior.SuperlatticeArtificially engineered structure made by stacking ultra-thin layers of different materials.In this study, alternating layers of platinum and copper enabled efficient energy control.SpintronicsUses the spin of electrons, in addition to their charge, for information processing.Promises lower power consumption and faster data transfer than conventional electronics.

Why is this Important?

• Beyond Conventional Electronics: Current semiconductor technologies are approaching physical and efficiency limits. Future computing requires alternative mechanisms capable of operating at much higher speeds.
• Enables THz-Scale Computing:Mechanical and electronic processes operating at THz frequencies could dramatically increase computational speed beyond current GHz-based systems.
• Advancement of Spintronics:THz atomic vibrations can precisely control magnetic states, supporting the development of high-speed spintronic devices and memory systems.

Challenges

• Material Stability:Sustaining repeated THz vibrations without damaging materials remains a challenge.
• Integration with Existing Systems: New devices must be compatible with current semiconductor infrastructure.
• Cost of Advanced Characterization:Techniques such as ultrafast X-ray diffraction require sophisticated facilities and remain expensive.

Future Applications

• Ultra-fast processors
• Spintronic memory devices
• Quantum information technologies
• High-speed communication systems
• Advanced sensors and imaging devices
• Thermoacoustic metamaterials for controlling heat and sound

Conclusion

The discovery that electron pressure can generate terahertz-frequency atomic vibrations represents a major advancement in condensed matter physics and materials science. By enabling ultrafast control over atomic motion, this breakthrough could accelerate the development of next-generation computing architectures, spintronic devices, and advanced functional materials. Its compatibility with industrial manufacturing techniques further enhances its potential for real-world technological applications.

UPSC Prelims MCQQ. With reference to Spintronics, consider the following statements:Spintronics utilizes the spin property of electrons in addition to their electric charge. Spintronic devices generally consume less power than conventional electronic devices. Spintronics is primarily based on the flow of photons rather than electrons. Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: (b)UPSC Mains QuestionQ. Emerging technologies such as spintronics and strain engineering are expected to redefine the future of computing. Discuss the significance of terahertz-frequency material manipulation in advancing next-generation electronic systems. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

5.Rakhigarhi Skeleton Investigation: Reconstructing the Human Story of the Harappans

Why in News?

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has transferred human skeletal remains excavated from Rakhigarhi to the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI), Kolkata, for advanced scientific investigation. The study is expected to provide fresh insights into the origins, lifestyle, health, and genetic history of the Harappan people.

Rakhigarhi: A Window into the Harappan World

• Located in Hisar district, Haryana.
• Largest known settlement of the Indus Valley/Harappan Civilization (≈550 hectares).
• Shows continuous occupation from Early Harappan to Mature Harappan phases.
• One of the most important Harappan burial sites discovered in South Asia.

Why is the Investigation Significant?

The study marks a transition from traditional archaeology to scientific archaeology, combining genetics, anthropology, archaeology, and earth sciences.

It aims to examine:

• Genetic ancestry of Harappan populations.
• Health, nutrition and disease patterns.
• Dietary habits and mobility.
• Burial customs and social organization.
• Environmental conditions during the Harappan period.
• Population continuity and migration patterns.

Scientific Tools and Their Relevance

Technique	Purpose
Ancient DNA (aDNA)	Traces ancestry, genetic links and population movements
Stable Isotope Analysis	Reveals diet, water sources and migration history
Palaeopathology	Studies diseases, nutrition and living conditions
Facial Reconstruction	Recreates probable appearance of Harappan individuals

Rakhigarhi and the Aryan Migration Debate

Rakhigarhi gained global attention after genetic analysis of a 4,600-year-old female skeleton.

Important findings included:

• Absence of detectable Steppe pastoralist ancestry in the sampled individual.
• Evidence of substantial indigenous genetic continuity.
• Genetic affinity with ancient Iranian-related agricultural populations.

These findings have become important in debates surrounding the Aryan Migration Theory, although scholars emphasize that conclusions require larger datasets and multidisciplinary evidence.

What Rakhigarhi Reveals About Harappan Civilization

What Rakhigarhi Reveals About the Harappan CivilizationUrban PlanningRakhigarhi shows a large, planned settlement with organized streets and housing. It had brick-built structures and a well-developed drainage system. Clear zoning suggests separation of residential and industrial areas. Craft and TechnologyEvidence of bead-making, pottery, and shell-working industries has been found. Use of standardized weights indicates regulated trade practices. Seals and artifacts suggest administrative control and commercial activity. Social and Cultural LifeBurial sites show different types of graves, indicating social variation. Grave goods suggest differences in wealth and status. Human remains provide data on diet, health, and population structure. Economy and ImportanceRakhigarhi functioned as a major urban and trade centre in the Harappan network. It was involved in regional and long-distance exchange systems. Its scale suggests strong agricultural support and economic organization.

Conclusion

Rakhigarhi is no longer merely an archaeological site; it is emerging as a laboratory for understanding the people behind the Harappan Civilization. The ongoing scientific investigation has the potential to reshape our understanding of ancestry, migration, health, and social life in one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations.

UPSC Prelims MCQQ. With reference to Rakhigarhi, consider the following statements:It is the largest known Harappan site discovered in India. Recent studies at the site involve ancient DNA analysis. Rakhigarhi is located in Gujarat. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: (b)UPSC Mains QuestionScientific archaeology is increasingly transforming our understanding of ancient civilizations. Discuss in the context of the recent Rakhigarhi skeletal investigations.250 WORDS